Scaling Relations in Oxygen Reduction Reaction Electrocatalysis

Scaling relations represent a fundamental limitation in electrocatalysis, particularly for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), which underpins energy conversion technologies such as fuel cells and metal-air batteries. Improving the activity of ORR catalysts requires overcoming the scaling relations, i.e. correlations between adsorption energies of reaction intermediates. In this review, we summarise the existing literature by providing a critical meta-analysis, deriving new theoretical principles, and proposing a taxonomy of strategies for manipulating these relations. By addressing both historical foundations and future possibilities, this work redefines how to conceptualize and address ORR catalysis challenges.