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Abstract
In underdeveloped and developing nations, Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPs) are highly sought after for treating infections and diseases due to their availability and affordability. This research aims to quantify microbial contamination in herbal products sold in Kaduna markets and orthodox-prepared herbal cocktail regimens for treating stomach ulcers, typhoid, and malaria fever, evaluating their contribution to increasing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in high and medium-density settlements in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The study revealed alarming levels of bacterial contamination across all samples. Shigella spp. counts in combined leaves reached 3.37 x 10^5 CFU/ml, far exceeding the WHO limit of 10^2 CFU/ml. Registered herbal products showed a higher count of S. aureus at 1.82 x 10^5 CFU/ml, while fermented plantain exhibited the highest bacterial count, particularly for S. aureus at 1.07 x 10^6 CFU/ml. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) displayed significant resistance to multiple antibiotics, including Pefloxacin, Ciprofloxacin, Streptomycin, and Rocephin, indicating it is a multi-drug-resistant (MDR) strain. Salmonella spp. showed limited resistance to Pefloxacin and Gentamycin, suggesting it is not yet MDR but shows early signs of resistance. Shigella spp. was highly resistant to Ciprofloxacin, Amoxicillin, Pefloxacin, Gentamycin, and Spafloxacin, classifying it as MDR. Escherichia coli (E. coli) demonstrated extensive multi-drug resistance, being resistant to Amoxicillin, Pefloxacin, Septrin, Streptomycin, Ciprofloxacin, Ampiclox, Gentamycin, Spafloxacin, and Tarivid, highlighting the need for new antibiotic treatments. These findings underscore the urgent need for stringent quality control measures to ensure the safety of herbal medicinal products and to mitigate the potential health risks and contributions to AMR associated with their consumption.
