Using pH dependence to understand mechanisms in electrochemical CO reduction

Electrochemical conversion of CO(2) into hydrocarbons and oxygenates is envisioned as a promising path towards closing the carbon cycle in modern technology. To this day, however, the reaction mechanisms towards the plethora of products are disputed, complicating the search for novel catalyst materials. In order to conclusively identify the rate-limiting steps in CO reduction on Cu, we analyzed the mechanisms on the basis of constant potential DFT calculations and experiments at a wide range of pH values (3 - 13). We find that *CO dimerization is energetically favoured as the rate limiting step towards multi-carbon products. This finding is consistent with experiments, where the reaction rate is nearly unchanged on an SHE potential scale, even under acidic conditions. For methane, both theory and experiments indicate a change in the rate-limiting step with electrolyte pH from the first protonation step in acidic/neutral conditions to a later one in alkaline conditions. We also show, through a detailed analysis of the microkinetics, that a surface combination of *CO and *H is inconsistent with the measured current densities and Tafel slopes. Finally, we discuss the implications of our understanding for future mechanistic studies and catalyst design.